The impact of project-based learning on EFL learners’ learning motivation and academic performance: an empirical study in a Chinese rural school

Project-based learning

Project-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional approach that is problem-driven and grounded in authentic contexts, aiming to cultivate students’ core competencies and enhance their diverse capabilities (Zhang and Su, 2021; Krajcik and Blumenfeld, 2005). Rooted in John Dewey’s “learning by doing” philosophy, PBL emphasizes that learners acquire knowledge through meaningful activities rather than passively receiving information. The theoretical foundation of PBL lies in social constructivism, which posits that knowledge is actively constructed through learners’ interactions with peers, instructors, and the surrounding environment (Vygotsky, 1978). Within this framework, learning is viewed as a dynamic social process in which students deepen their conceptual understanding through collaboration, inquiry, and practical application.

Additionally, PBL draws on situated learning theory, which asserts that meaningful learning occurs in authentic contexts (Lave and Wenger, 1991), and is further informed by the theory of cognitive tools, which highlights the importance of external scaffolding instruction in fostering deeper cognitive engagement and problem-solving skills development (Jonassen and Rohrer-Murphy, 1999). Hence, PBL integrates the principles of authentic problem-solving, knowledge construction, social interaction, cognitive tool support, and outcome orientation. It not only enriches students’ academic learning but also promotes the development of essential skills needed to navigate both school and life beyond the classroom (Larmer and Mergendoller, 2015).

Although there is no precise definition of PBL and clear instruction on how to conduct PBL in the classroom, scholars do share similar visions on the design principles and instructional suggestions (Thomas, 2000; Larmer and Mergendoller, 2015; Thomas (2000) identified five hallmark features of PBL, such as centrality, driving question, constructive inquiry, student autonomy, and authenticity. Similarly, Krajcik and Blumenfeld (2005) proposed five essential design elements: a driving question, exploration of the question through expert performances, collaborative activities, scaffolding learning tasks, and the creation of tangible artifacts. Other researchers also have contributed to refining PBL design by emphasizing sustained inquiry (Larmer and Mergendoller, 2015), interdisciplinary integration (Cabanillas, 2023), and critical reflection to ensure high-quality, practice-oriented implementation.

These contributions serve to bridge the gap between theory and classroom practice, providing clearer guidance for effective teaching and learning. Furthermore, the Buck Institute for PBL has developed a set of Gold Standard criteria to support high-quality implementation, aimed at enhancing students’ acquisition of key knowledge, conceptual understanding, and future-ready success skills.

PBLL and language learners’ learning motivation

PBLL is an instructional approach that applies the principles of PBL to language education (Yang and Diao, 2024). A growing body of empirical research has systematically evaluated the learners’ learning motivations with PBLL instruction. Landron et al. (2018) investigated the impact of PBLL on gifted students in second language learning. By implementing both authenticity-driven interdisciplinary projects and student-designed thematic projects, the study found significant improvements in middle school students’ learning motivation and Spanish language proficiency. In addition, Amorati and Hajek (2021) employed a mixed-methods approach to explore how a product-oriented PBLL task impacted university students’ learning motivation in Italian language learning. The research findings indicated that despite challenges such as time management and creative ideation, students’ intrinsic motivation increased significantly.

In the English as a foreign language (EFL) context, research has primarily focused on changes in learning motivation. While findings generally support PBLL’s positive effect on student engagement and learning motivation, results remain mixed.

On one hand, numerous studies reported that PBLL enhances EFL learners’ learning motivation. Aubrey (2022), using a multi-case study, analyzed three university students’ learning trajectories in a PBLL task. Through a multimodal evaluation, PBLL was found to boost learner engagement and foster proactive communication. The integration of public presentations for international audiences reinforced students’ intrinsic motivation. Similarly, Zheng et al. (2022) conducted a longitudinal case study with five college students and revealed dynamic engagement patterns and motivational mechanisms in collaborative PBLL writing tasks. Li (2022) found that problem-driven PBLL effectively stimulated middle school students’ interest in English. Furthermore, Shin (2018) adopted a quasi-experimental design to examine the impact of technology-integrated PBLL on 79 South Korean university students’ English learning motivation and self-efficacy. Grounded in Keller’s ARCS model, the study showed that the PBLL approach significantly improved learners’ learning motivation as measured by a modified self-efficacy scale.

On the other hand, some studies found that PBLL did not significantly enhance EFL learners’ learning motivation. Cabanillas (2023), in a quasi-experimental study on interdisciplinary PBLL with fifth-grade students, reported no significant motivational differences between experimental and CG. The researcher stated that learning adaptation, uneven English proficiency, and group dynamics may have limited PBLL’s effectiveness in this context.

PBLL and language learners’ academic performance

Despite the ongoing debates regarding PBLL’s motivational outcomes in EFL teaching, substantial research supports its effectiveness in improving students’ language skills, particularly in speaking, writing, and integrated language use.

In terms of oral proficiency, Cabanillas (2023) noted that interdisciplinary PBLL provided rich opportunities for interaction and authentic communication, leading to significant gains in EFL learners’ speaking abilities. A quasi-experimental study by Astawa et al. (2017) echoed these findings: Indonesian middle school students participating in PBLL tasks showed significant improvements in both speaking (monologues and dialogs) and writing skills. Regarding vocabulary and foundational language skills, Shafaei and Rahim (2015) found that Iranian high school EFL learners in a PBLL group significantly outperformed those in a traditional instruction group in vocabulary retention and mastery of complex terms. Zhao (2024), applying technology-enhanced PBLL in postgraduate English courses, reported simultaneous improvement in language use and technological literacy. Virtual environments and data interaction further strengthened knowledge transfer. Similarly, recent findings by Benlaghrissi and Meriem (2024) demonstrated that integrating MALL with PBL significantly enhanced EFL learners’ speaking proficiency, highlighting the pedagogical potential of mobile-assisted PBLL instruction.

PBLL has also shown promise in enhancing writing skills and English core competencies. Ye et al. (2019) demonstrated that project-based academic writing activities improved college students’ logical expression and international communication, aligning motivation with career aspirations. Ma (2025) conducted a case study showing how PBLL’s “inquiry–presentation” process addressed the mechanical nature of traditional writing instruction, enabling senior high students to produce autonomous thematic writing and develop core competencies. Andargie et al. (2025) found that PBLL significantly improved EFL undergraduate students’ writing performance and highlighted PBLL’s role in enhancing idea generation, organization, and collaboration through real-world tasks.

The current research suggests that PBLL enhances learners’ learning motivation through authentic tasks, collaborative inquiry, and public presentations (Aubrey, 2022; Zheng, 2022). However, Cabanillas (2023) indicated that PBLL does not universally improve their learning motivation, highlighting the influence of learner characteristics, learning environments, and implementation fidelity. Moreover, while PBLL is widely recognized for advancing speaking, writing, and integrated language skills (Astawa et al. 2017; Shafaei and Rahim, 2015; Artini et al. 2018), most studies focus on urban schools or higher education contexts (Andargie et al. 2025). The academic performance of rural students remains understudied. Although PBLL varies in form, such as task-based, technology-enhanced, and interdisciplinary PBL, existing research has not sufficiently demonstrated differences in learning outcomes across types. Some studies (Holmes and Hwang, 2016; Tomaszewski et al. 2020) argued that the effectiveness of PBLL depends more on teacher facilitation learner autonomy, and technological support. Thus, whether PBLL can effectively improve learning motivation and academic achievement in under-resourced rural schools still requires systematic investigation.

PBLL in EFL rural area

Existing research on PBLL in rural EFL contexts primarily focuses on the effectiveness of EFL rural learners’ learning outcomes and the challenges associated with its implementation, along with corresponding coping strategies.

Studies have shown that PBLL, through contextualized tasks and authentic language use, can effectively enhance rural students’ vocabulary acquisition, oral expression, and intercultural competence. For instance, in a case study conducted in rural Colombia, Castañeda and Jackeline (2014) found that 17 eighth-grade EFL learners who participated in a culturally themed mini-PBLL project demonstrated improved vocabulary retention and teacher-student interaction, although no significant improvement was observed in grammatical accuracy. The study suggested that the contextual nature of PBLL tasks reduced learners’ language anxiety and boosted their learning motivation, highlighting the need to balance fluency and accuracy in oral production. Similarly, Samaranayake (2016) reported that “micro-projects,” such as market role-plays, enhanced classroom interaction in rural Sri Lanka, providing students with more opportunities for autonomous questioning and authentic communication, which in turn improved their speaking skills.

However, implementing PBLL in rural areas also presents notable challenges. Santhi et al. (2019) investigated a technology-enhanced PBLL initiative involving 35 Indonesian high school students who created YouTube video projects. While most students felt the project fostered creativity and increased their confidence in language use, many also reported difficulties due to limited access to digital devices. Furthermore, teacher facilitation and classroom interaction patterns remain significant obstacles in PBLL implementation. In a quasi-experimental study, Carrabba and Farmer (2018) found that students in the PBLL group exhibited higher learning motivation and more frequent teacher-student interactions. However, only a small proportion of learners produced higher-order thinking questions. The researchers argued that while open-ended PBLL tasks encouraged participation, the lack of teacher-initiated, inquiry-based questioning hindered the development of higher-order thinking skills.

In addition, several studies underscored the need to consider cultural factors when implementing PBLL in rural areas. Zheng (2022) found that a culturally responsive PBLL design, such as English-language guided tours of the Dragon Boat Festival, helped improve students’ collaborative and reflective abilities. However, many students were reluctant to publicly present their project outcomes. The study recommended adopting low-risk presentation formats (e.g., in-class sharing sessions) to alleviate students’ anxiety to increase student engagement and cultural identity.

To sum, existing studies on PBLL in rural contexts have provided initial insights into its effects on language learning outcomes, technological integration, classroom interaction, and cultural relevance. Nonetheless, several research gaps remain.

First, while PBLL appears to enhance students’ interest in learning, its specific impact on academic performance has not been thoroughly validated. Second, under conditions of limited resources and insufficient teacher training in PBLL, it is still unclear how to optimize its implementation to effectively improve student learning motivation. Therefore, the present study aims to examine the practical application of English PBLL in rural areas, with a particular focus on:

RQ1: Can PBL as an innovative instruction improve EFL learners’ learning motivation in a rural middle school?

RQ2: Can PBL improve EFL learners’ academic performance in a rural middle school?